Historical Innovation: The Godfather

During the 1960s, America is tense with conflict due to the Vietnam war and the soon- emerging counter-culture of “hippies”. When new, younger directors who were educated at film schools in America step onto the Hollywood scene, they take after the French cinema industries by adding violence, sexuality, generational differences, etc. to their films After the motion picture industry officially abandoned the Hays Code that urged self-censorship of content in 1968, the new American cinema was given more freedom to include these elements. This new era free from censorship, replaced with age-based ratings, liberated Hollywood, and opened up mainstream cinema to exploitation. The conflict between old Hollywood professionals and young, experimental filmmakers was just one of many conflicts occurring during this time. The diversity in films of the 70s exemplified these conflicts: from anti-war films to feminist films, action films, organized crime, counterculture films, and everything in between. Films from the 1970s reflected a questioning individual and the hard truth of the times. Francis Ford Coppola’s 1972 hit film ‘The Godfather’ represents 1970’s cinema because it presents a narrative of disillusionment of the American dream through family bonds, brutal violence, the American dream, and capitalist greed.

The film begins at Don Vito Corleone’s home, on the day of his daughter’s wedding. The first words we hear in the film are, “I believe in America” (The Godfather). Spoken by Bonasera, the film immediately begins a criticism of one’s faith in the American dream. More specifically, linking that dream to the American immigrant experience. Bonasera tried to strike a balance between the Old and the New Worlds by allowing his daughter some independence while instilling in her a respect for her family that was rooted in the past: “I gave her freedom, but I taught her never to disgrace her family” (The Godfather). After the American boys assaulted his daughter, Bonasera made an effort to uphold his position as a responsible American, “I went to the police, like a good American” (The Godfather). But when Bonasera was unable to receive justice through US court, his belief that he was accepted as an American citizen was destroyed. When that happened, Bonasera decided to ask Vito for Old World retribution for his daughter. This introductory scene inside Vito’s office encapsulates one of the primary themes of the film.

During this time in the US, disillusionment and uncertainty were rampant throughout the country. From rapid social reform to political demonstrations and protests, the Vietnam War, and reflections on gender roles and civil rights issues, the idea of balancing two worlds within one’s own life may have been one that was fairly relatable during this time. The idyllic story of creating the American Dream seemed lost in this generation, as the mystique and wonder that came from America dwindled due to soaring inflation, political upheaval, and social reform in the 1970s. The two main components of the American dream were family and business. One part of the American dream, traditionally associated with men, was to establish a strong foundation and support the family. The other would eventually become a well-known American rags-to-riches tale. The goal is to establish personal independence, but the extremely conflicting demands of society are in opposition to that goal. There is an immediate juxtaposition during the first 30 minutes of the film as the cameras cuts between Vito’s sparsely illuminated home office with dark walls and closed blinds and the lively wedding celebrations outside in bright daylight with partygoers dressed in colorful dresses. During this sequence, Vito is seen looking out the blinds at the party. The inextricable connection between Vito’s business and his family is undeniable, and there is a delicate balance between these two worlds. In criticizing the American dream, ‘The Godfather’ examines the connections between not only family and business, but also Europe and America (Old World vs. New World). The movie asks if Old World customs from Europe can be brought to the New World in America without compromising the American dream. Because of the disorientation brought on by America’s fast-paced way of life, the New World may disregard the traditions and conventions of the Old World, depriving the immigrant of a moral compass. The film uses parallel editing, using cross-cuts between conflicting scenes to show the tension between these poles. In the baptism scene, the use of parallel editing allows for stark juxtapositions to symbolize the conflicts in Michael’s attempt at fulfilling the American Dream. Michael is becoming a godfather not just to his niece in this scene, but also to his mafia family. The first cut contrasts between hands holding a baby, with the hands of someone holding a gun. This continues when there is a murder in the scene right after Michael renounces Satan in the church. This editing allows the audience to draw parallels between the two worlds that Michael must hang between. He needs both for an idyllic American success story, but he struggles to find the balance between the two and often succumbs to the labyrinth that is trying to restore stability between them. ‘The Godfather’ presents America as a land of modernity, and opportunity, but also raises questions about this way of life. Moving to America for a “new start” might all too easily turn out to be dangerous. Since the immigrant is not fully assimilated into mainstream America, he must rely on organized crime, or live on the periphery, to exist. This presents the disillusionment in the American dream that is, ‘The Godfather’.

‘The Godfather’ additionally exemplifies the film industry and Hollywood in the 1970s in its graphic depiction of violence. Although “the male gaze” was frequently reinforced by New
Hollywood during this time (such as the male-directed scopophilia and the cruel treatment of women seen in Alfred Hitchcock’s films from the 1960-the 70s) ‘The Godfather’ abandons these conventions. Male violence is depicted in its entirety in the film, with no boundaries covering any type of abasement. This is in addition to the film’s obsession with highlighting the moral decline of its male protagonists. If there is a representation of sadistic punishment in the movie, it is through Sonny’s death. Sonny is condemned for being too masculine, and the prolonged death is carried out in full view of the camera, rendering him dehumanized in the process. The women in the movie are not subjected to the same extreme violence. The murder of Michael’s Italian wife Apollonia is the death that is most brutal in both nature and end; nonetheless, despite the harshness of how she dies, the impact of this death is not as obvious due to the scene’s lack of visual violence. Although the car blows up in our direct line of sight, we do not witness the full extent of the harm done to her body. There is deadly violence directed at her, yet there is no
objection to further humiliating her. There is no prolongation of the pain; the violence is immediate. There are clear restrictions on how Coppola chooses to imagine the female character in his movie, even though he may reject the American cinematic tradition of brutal punishment. The mise-en-scene in the scenario in which Connie is a target of domestic violence illustrates the boundaries Connie places around herself and her life. Domestic accessories appear in the spaces she occupies and destroys. Connie destroys the dining room, breaks dishes in the kitchen, and is physically assaulted in the bedroom. The brutality committed against Connie ultimately served as bait to draw Sonny to his demise, adding to the restrictions placed on women in ‘The Godfather’. The film exemplifies the ultra-violent depictions commonly seen during the 1970s while criticizing it. The men in the film use women to uphold their hyper-masculine conceptions of domination but eventually find themselves at their demise because of this. The new freedom that came with the lack of censorship allowed for films such as ‘The Godfather’ to criticize the violence created by the characters while also showing it, further pushing the narrative of the film
to depict a high-tension balancing act between family and business. These ideas together create disillusionment towards the American dream.

‘The Godfather’ represents 1970s cinema through the extreme disillusionment and hopelessness towards the American dream. The story is about a family trying to hold tight
together while participating in violent and corrupt acts that will eventually break them apart all for the goal of accomplishments in the New World and capitalist success. The achievement of the American dream Vito is marred by failure. He has lived to witness his oldest son’s violent death. His hopes for his youngest son becoming a senator or governor were dashed. He had planned to protect Michael from the family business, but precisely to defend his father, Michael has become intimately entangled in the Mafia business and becomes a wanted fugitive for murder in the process. Vito’s ascent to power in America has a heroism to it, but if he is a hero, he is a tragic one.

Historical Innovation: Burn After Reading

The 2000s in America were a time of uncertainty and anxiety in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, the wars and Iraq and Afghanistan, and the economic recession. The Coen brothers directed the 2008 film ‘Burn After Reading’ which captures the distinctive qualities of cinema in the 2000s. ‘Burn After Reading’ depicts the zeitgeist of a post-9/11 society where the border between truth and fiction is blurred through its examination of paranoia, surveillance, and the absurdity of human behavior.  The movie conveys a sense of anxiety by showing characters that are disoriented, perplexed, and unable to find meaning in their life. The movie’s use of satire and dark humor reflects the cultural climate of the era, when people were struggling with the absurdity of their surroundings. The film depicts how broken and disjointed modern society is through its intricate plot and non-linear narrative structure. Ultimately the film can be seen as a commentary on the state of the world in the 2000s, and an exploration of the human condition in a time of uncertainty and fear through its depiction of paranoia, surveillance, and the absurdity of human behavior.

The movie’s premise offers a satirical perspective on the world of espionage, as well as the paranoia and surveillance that go along with it. The movie shows a world where nobody can be trusted and everyone is always spying on one another. Either by their government or by others attempting to steal their secrets, the central characters are constantly being watched. Throughout the entire movie, there is a clear paranoid attitude, and the characters constantly keep an eye around them to see if anyone is watching them. Characters are being examined both physically and psychologically as they attempt to decipher one another’s intents and driving forces. The main message of the story is that privacy and security can never be maintained in a society where everyone is constantly observing one another. The premise of anxiety and monitoring is depicted in the movie through a variety of filmmaking approaches. Occasionally, the movie is shot with a handheld camera, giving it a documentary-style atmosphere and a sense of urgency. The use of close-ups and tight framing intensifies the characters’ feelings of being watched, as they appear trapped and confined within the frame. Or in other scenes, the film made us feel like the watcher. This is true of movie viewers, twisted into a different perspective in where we are watching someone while being in the movie. For example, when Brad Pitt’s character,  Chad Feldheimer, gets trapped in the closet watching George Clooney’s character, Harry Pfarrer. The camera (the viewers) also get trapped in the confines of the closet, only able to see Clooney through a small crack in the doorway. Additionally, these extreme close-ups of Pitt exude the utter panic, relief, and shock he is feeling in this moment and the ones following. Thus, urges us as the viewers to feel the same and further encourages that in scenes such as these in the film we are supposed to feel immersed as either the surveillance or the surveilled and ultimately pushing the narrative of utter paranoia that was apparent not only in the film but also in America. The soundtrack also plays a significant role in creating a tense and uneasy atmosphere, with the use of music and ambient noise that heightened the sense of surveillance. Or more specifically, the lack of a soundtrack plays a significant role in emphasizing the thematic elements of this film. During tense or stressful scenes, there is almost complete soundtrack silence except for quiet human noises such as whistling, walking, etc. Additionally, the use of flashbacks and non-linear storytelling keeps the audience on their toes and contributes to the sense of confusion and mistrust felt by the characters. In another sense, it gives the viewer complete power as the all-seeing surveyor. Since we as the viewers get to watch what all characters are doing and therefore gain more knowledge than the characters in the film, the directors create a sense of dramatic irony in the fact that even with the intense paranoia and surveillance in the film, the characters were still in the dark about each other. Overall, the Coen brothers’ masterful use of these techniques creates a gripping and unsettling depiction of the world of espionage and the paranoia and surveillance that comes with it, especially at a time after one of the most significant terrorist attacks on our country in history.

The dark humor in the movie effectively captures the absurdity of the behavior of individuals in the early 2000s. The movie denigrates the conceited and ignorant individuals who exist within the realm of politics and espionage by showing the ridiculousness of their intentions and conduct. For example, Osbourne Cox, John Malkovich’s character, believes that his memoirs are of high security and of worth to other people and possibly other countries. This stems from his insecurity which is also seen in the scene with his superiors at the beginning of the film, where he acts deeply offended when he is called out on his behavior and is demoted, although the allegations were true and he clearly could not be trusted. Characters in the movie are revealed to be innately flawed, with their conceit, narcissism, and incompetence on full display. Each character’s activities, which can range from absurd situations to horrifying crimes, are motivated by a mix of greed, desire, and misplaced ambition. The movie provides a biting commentary on the status of society in the early 2000s, when people were more and more concerned with their self-interests than with the welfare of society, through humor and caricature. The characters seem to embody the worst aspects of political self-interest and narcissism, a strong theme in 2000’s American society. Linda Litzke (Francis McDormand) is willing to commit blackmail and put her and her friend in harm’s to get money for cosmetic surgeries for herself. Osbourne Cox refuses to admit that he has a drinking problem, and also refuses to admit that he is chasing a false threat and that his memoirs are not as important as he thinks they are. Cox is a self-important, foolish character who is a frustrated CIA analyst who feels his employer has wronged him. His acts in the movie demonstrate the foolishness of unbridled ego and ambition because they are both absurd and dangerous. Harry Pfarrer (George Clooney) is interested only in sex and exercise. There is nothing complicated about Harry Pfarrer, who spends almost all of his time concealing extramarital affairs and trying to “get a run in”. He is, however, deeply paranoid as a holdover from his days as a US Marshall, causing him to delve deeper into a mystery that may or may not exist. Chad Felheimer depicts more incompetence than vanity and exudes an innocence bordering on stupidity and an illusion of grandeur that ultimately results in his tragic demise. He is willing to break into another person’s house and hide out in their closet without a second thought, proving that is a true depiction of absurd human behavior. Because they are involved in a deadly misunderstanding and are motivated by a mix of pride and paranoia, these people are put on a collision course with the harsh forces of fate and folly. The result is an extremely thought-provoking movie that uses humor to depict this period. Overall, the movie exposes the absurdity of human behavior at a period when self-interest and individualism were becoming more and more pervasive in society through its dark comedy and caricature.

Dark humor and a sarcastic tone were common in movies from the 2000s that attempted to criticize the excesses and shortcomings of modern society. These movies usually featured flawed, ethically suspicious, or downright ludicrous characters who served as a mirror to society at large and regularly employed humor as a weapon for social commentary. In light of this, the movie can be viewed as a shining example of the era’s filmmaking styles, using its clever use of satire and humor to make a keen commentary on modern politics and culture. The movie serves as a reminder of the ability of cinema to comment on and criticize the society in which it is produced and is still a compelling example of a time when filmmakers were struggling with the complexity and paradoxes of a quickly changing world. ‘Burn After Reading‘ is a sharp reflection on the state of civilization in the 2000s and is darkly humorous in tone. The movie criticizes a culture that values personal success over empathy and civic duty and is preoccupied with self-improvement, individualism, and unbridled ambition. The movie highlights the folly of human behavior and the consequences of our self-centered desires by portraying characters that are profoundly flawed and selfish. In the end, “Burn After Reading” argues the point that genuine personal growth and societal advancement result from reflection, empathy, and a readiness to take into account the needs and viewpoints of others rather than from recognition or achievement from others. In a time when individualism and self-interest are king, the movie continues to serve as a potent reminder of the value of community and human connection.

Bicycle Thieves and Italian Neorealism

Bicycle Thieves, a 1948 film directed by Vittorio De Sica, is a story of the Ricci family of Italy and their struggles post WW2. This film is an example of the Italian Neorealism style of filmmaking that was created once Italy was liberated from the reign of fascism and dictator Benito Mussolini.

After the liberation, Italian filmmakers started forming a new style of film-making to mark this change in media censorship. Italian Neorealism was created. Italian Neorealism films focus on the harsh truth and reality of daily life that the majority of the population faced. Mainly focused on was poverty, which is what most working class Italians experienced in this time. 

Bicycle Thieves represents Italian Neorealism in film through the setting and who the movie focuses on. The Ricci family was affected physically, financially, emotionally, and spiritually from World War II. The husband, Antonio Ricci, along with his wife Maria, pawn their bedsheets to get money for Antonio to buy a bike to use for his new job. This shows the extreme poverty that many Italians were facing post World War II, many families having to barter essential items for other luxuries, and showing how they had to sacrifice in order to receive anything since they don’t have enough money for it. Another harsh reality of working class life is in store for Antonio when his bike gets stolen on the first day of work. The rest of the movie is following Antonio and his young son, Bruno, around town as they go on a wild goose chase through the streets of the city to look for his bike, and end up empty handed. The plot of this movie is textbook Italian Neorealism as it focuses on the daily life and the problems of the working class in the 1940’s.

Another addition of Italian Neorealism through the movie is the cast itself. These characters in the movie weren’t played by professional actors pretending to be poor. They were cast with ordinary people who have never acted a day in their lives. Thus, adding to the commonality and the focus on working class that is an important factor in Italian Neorealism. Another Italian Neorealistic effect in the film is the use of shooting on location. The lack of set use and rather opting for spaces that were not glamorized for the camera allowed the viewers to see what has happened to the majority of Italy due to the war. The once beautiful Italian landscape was affected by the war and was now left a country filled with anger, loneliness, and longing. The setting which this was filmed, which is simply the streets of real Italy, is depicted with windows missing glass in their frames, dirty old buildings, hundreds of people walking aimlessly through the empty streets begging for an opportunity for work or scrounging for money.

The final representation of Italian Neorealism seen in this film is through the ending. The ending is not typical to many movies that we watch today. Rather than a nice happy ending that ties all loose ends up in a nice package, they leave the audience feeling unsettled. Antonio Ricci never gets his bike back. The film ends. We will never know what happened to the family. But that is exactly what Italian Neorealism in cinema is meant to do. That’s the most realistic ending because that’s the harsh reality of life. Not everything gets resolved and sometimes bad things happen to good people. The main point of Italian Neorealism through cinema is to deal with accurate social, political, and economic situation that Italians were facing at the time, and the treatment of the citizens within the country. A lot of this treatment was unfair, and many citizens felt like their rights were being taken away from them, similarly to how Antonio got his bike taken from him for no reason and without regret.

This film is a perfect example of what the neorealistic Italian filmmakers were trying to portray through their films. The harsh struggle of life for any working class Italian is seen and sympathized through the Ricci family, as they symbolize the Italian population through their struggles and efforts to survive.

A Marxist Analysis of ‘Fight Club’

The movie Fight Club directed by David Fincher is a 1999 drama about two men who form an underground club and fight other men with similar hopeless outlooks on lives while abiding by strict orders and rules from the club. The movie was adapted from Chuck Palahniuk’s novel. Fight Club is a significant movie to analyze with the use of Marxist criticism as the movie’s plot mirrors American values and exemplifies how people attempt to fill voids in their lives through consuming materials and earthly possessions. Marxist criticism argues that, “everything is shaped, ultimately, by the economic system of a society” as well as the idea that, “Capitalism is not only an economic system but also something that affects attitudes, values, personality types, and culture in general” (Ott & Mack). In this paper, I argue that the movie Fight Club signifies how our modern society is consumed with material products rather than fulfilling oneself mentally, attempting to overcome alienation, and signifying how the five mass media filters can be applied to how our modern society operates.

In the movie Fight Club, a depressed insomniac attends a myriad of random support groups to subdue his mental state. In one of these groups he meets a woman named Marla who is also a fake attendee of support groups. Marla seems to make his emotional state a little better, but when he meets a strange soap salesman named Tyler Durden, everything changes. When the nameless man’s perfect apartment is destroyed, he finds himself living with Tyler in his run down house that gives him a new perspective on how other people live their lives. Tyler and the man couldn’t be more opposite, but together they form an underground club for bare-knuckle fighting. The group grows and creates more and more of these secret fight clubs start to appear. The clubs begin to take on an anti-capitalist and terroristic attitude, and when Tyler and Maria grow closer and start to leave the man on the outskirts while the group spirals out of control, he knows he must find a way out.

Fight Club shows how our society is consumed with material products and places extreme value on the possessions that one collects throughout their lives. An example of this is when the narrator’s perfect apartment explodes. At the beginning of the movie, the narrator is depicted as a cog in the system of society. He takes pride in his appearance and his possessions, but everything changes when his apartment is destroyed. Since he placed extreme value on his apartment since he worked so hard for it, it felt as though his whole life was over. This signifies a typical Marxist idea that the ruling class (in this case, typical American ideals) convince the working class that they must slave their life away in order to afford everyday material things. Blackwell states, “the social world in a manifestation of the material conditions that exist at that particular moment” (Ott & Mack). Since the “ruling class” convince the working class to believe their ideology of spending your life working to afford material possessions, the loss of the narrators apartment exemplified extreme loss of not just the material itself but also a significant portion of his personal identity. When he moves into Tyler’s house, the narrator begins to rethink his way of life. In Tyler, he sees a freedom that he has never experienced in his own life. Tyler lives in a run down house with no restraints and nobody controlling him. Tyler owns very few material possessions, and yet he experiences more freedom from the tethers of society than the narrator ever thought was possible. This observation gives the narrator the power to join Tyler in starting the fight club as a way to fight back against the society that has ultimately failed him.

In Fight Club, the narrator must attempt to overcome alienation throughout the plot. The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts states that alienation is shown through the idea that one’s work is, “external to the worker, that it is not a part of his nature, that consequently he does not fulfill himself in his work but denies himself…his work is not voluntary but imposed, forced labour” (Marx, 1844). The idea that the fight club was created upon was a way for capitalist workers to get away from the stress and emotions of their life. Marx states that alienation from one’s work is proven because, “as soon as there is no physical or other compulsion it is avoided like the plague” (Marx, 1844). The narrator grows more aware of his alienation he experiences in his past life after he associates himself with Tyler. Tyler describes their generation as slaves who are, “working jobs they hate, just so they can buy shit they don’t really need” (Fight Club). The narrator begins to understand that his life before Tyler exemplified how the bourgeoisie expect the working class to live their lives. He and Tyler enjoy the rebelliousness of the act of fighting, but the fight club’s unified rebellion ultimately results in what repeated alienation and loss of faith in society turns into: a revolutionary group.

Marxist analysis explains how in our modern society, there are five mass media filters. These filters are, “ownership, advertising, establishing management and control, flack, and anti-(communism, socialism, terrorism)” (Ott & Mack). The idea of ownership means that large corporations and companies typically own many smaller corporations and censor the corporations that they own to protect the interests of the large corporation. The second filter is advertising, “as advertising funds media for audiences, the media sells you to advertisers as a product” (Ott & Mack). Establishing management and control means that the system we live in, “encourages complicity- push back and get pushed out” (Ott & Mack). For anyone who does push back, they experience flack. This is when, “they are discredited and viewers attention is diverted elsewhere: (Ott & Mack). The final filter is the “creation of a common enemy, aids in diversion and re-setting of the narrative” (Ott & Mack). The fight club itself shows the result of these filters at work through the use of strict rules that everyone in the club must abide by. This club, that was once a rebellion against the society that turned its back on its members, has become exactly what it set out to destroy. The club begins to use strategies that contradict Marxist theory. Durden names his army “space monkeys”, alienating them from their new rebellion work and turns them into numbers like they were in their capitalist job. Durden has complete power over the space monkeys, and if they push back then they get pushed out. They must follow all the strict rules of the club, just as they would have to follow obeys in their regular jobs.

Fight Club shows that people don’t need to follow the capitalist society, however they don’t need to follow the order of an anti-capitalist society either. The movie shows that the working class does in fact have invisible power over the bourgeoisie minority. The proletariat have the ability to revolutionize the society in which they reside in. The movie is significant to American culture by providing a hypothetical in which the working class take back the power that the minority government has taken away from them. It gives power back to the majority of society, and shows that the ruling class is not eternal. There is an alternative, and the ruling class can’t obtain the ruling ideas of a society as long as we as a society reject their capitalist notions.

Eisenstein Analysis of ‘The Shallows’ Scene

Sergei Eisenstein analyzed films with a main focus on the editing used in a film. In other words, Eisenstein and other Soviet Montage theorists believed that in order for a film to be good, the film must take full advantage of the capabilities of editing as well as be dialectical. Eisenstein also focused on the idea of emphasizing conflict and opposition through the use of technical editing. Eisenstein states, “The basis of [the dialectical approach to film form] is the dynamic conception of objects: being as a constant evolution from the interaction between two contradictory opposites” (Eisenstein, 161). In the shark attack scene from the 2016 film The Shallows directed by Jaume Collet-Serra, Eisenstein’s criticism can be applied by focusing on the interaction between the two characters and the basis of distance between the characters and the camera.

Eisenstein states that, “The interaction between the two produces and determines the dynamic” (Eisenstein, 162). The “two” he is referring to is the following two ideas that stand at the intersection of nature and industry: “The logic of organic form [and] the logic of rational form produces in collision the dialectic of the art form” (Eisenstein, 162). The interaction between the two characters, the woman and the shark, determined the dynamic of the interaction. The angle of the camera represented the prey/predator dynamic in a non traditional view. The camera switches points of view so the audience can better experience the emotions that the woman is feeling. This ideal also includes Eisenstein’s statement that “the basis of distance determines the intensity of the tension” (Eisenstein, 162). In the sense of space-time, the physical distance between the two characters is exemplified through the use of the distance between the audience and the characters. The camera follows the woman closely, and goes underwater and resurfaces at the same time she does during the initial attack. We as the audience can feel the intensity of the tension when she is underwater fighting for air. The editing used in this scene creates a more personal viewpoint for the audience to experience so we can feel the same sense of urgency that the woman feels in this situation. We also see shots underwater underneath the woman as she swims away from the shark. By allowing the viewer to be put into the sharks perspective, a conflict is created. The conflict the audience’s experience is heightened after multiple perspectives are applied. When the audience is in the perspective of the shark, we feel intense foreshadowing and expect something to happen. The perspective is then shifted into the woman’s, and we see how close she is to safety on top of the whale. However, when the perspective is shifted back to underneath her in the water, the distance seems much longer, and the audience is conflicted on if she will make it to safety before the shark attacks again. Eisenstein says that, “art is always conflict: because of its social mission, because of its nature, and because of its methodology” (Eisenstein, 161).

Since Eisenstein believed that dialectical editing was the key to creating artful films, films were analyzed based on how well the creators succeeded in the the interaction of organic and rational form (nature vs. industry). In the shark attack scene from ‘The Shallows’, the interaction between the organic action of a shark attacking a human and the rational form of allowing the audience to become a part of this action creates strong conflict, intensity, and tension. By pushing the limits of organic naturalness as well as mechanic industrialism, the audience is able to experience multiple perspectives to become totally immersed into the scene and feel the organic conflict. However, they are also aware that this experience is only capable due to the film’s rational form. The scene is a combination of organic form and rational form. Eisenstein states that the collision of these two forms is the dialectic of the art form, and therefore produces art.

Reviewing Films in Five Styles

Review 1: Journalistic Review

The Menu, directed by Mark Mylod, was released on November 18th, 2022 and stars Anya Taylor-Joy, Ralph Fiennes, and Nicholas Hoult. The film parodies a very particular type of elitism in the gourmet food industry. The attentiveness each visitor experiences at the chef’s private restaurant on the  island at first appears to be what elite foodies would expect for the price of entry. However, as the film continues, the specially created foods develop an invasive, ominous, and violent tone that is smart to the observer but horrifying to the diner. The atmosphere turns chaotic, yet the service remains intact. Much like other films that criticize the ultra-rich, the film shows how riches beyond comprehension corrupts people. The message becomes overbearing and blatant, yet remains humorous through the exaggerated behavior from the chef as well as the restaurant-goers. The cinematography from Peter Deming makes the private island appear improbably peaceful. The luxury atmosphere is established by the production design, and Mylod explored the space with overhead shots of both the cuisine and the restaurant floor. The sound design gives overlapping conversational fragments that allow the viewer to become immersed in the action while gradually raising the tension through the film score.

Review 2: Genre-Based Review

Bullet Train is a Japanese style action film directed by David Leitch with an animated style with abstract characters. The film was released on August 5th, 2022 and starred Brad Pitt, Joey King, Aaron Taylor-Johnson, and Bad Bunny. The script was inspired by a Japanese novel and the film’s plot, tone, and overall aesthetic is reliant on Japanese signifiers and cultural attitudes. The plot takes place on a bullet train hurtling across Japan. The characters are comic book-like, holding grudges against one another or are fleeing the consequences of past deeds. The characters are common action-type characters including hired killers or other violent criminals related to the world of crime. The characters have sentimental backgrounds that help move the action plot, coming from tragic pasts or are purely malevolent. The tone entailed with a classic Japanese action film along with winking black humor and exaggerated pulp. Characters are introduced with the typeface-on-screen-followed-by-flashback-montage style that is recognizable in the genre. Weapons and fists are used as the characters chase each other around, joking occasionally to establish the lighthearted theme juxtaposed to the violent action. The film establishes that these characters are tangentially connected, touching on themes of fate, luck, and karma.

Review 3: Formalist Review

Where The Crawdads Sing was released on July 15, 2022 and was directed by Olivia Newman and starred Daisy Edgar-Jones and Taylor John Smith. The film takes place in the ‘50s and ‘60s, which on the evidence seen in the film were uneventful decades for the American South. The themes of a brave woman growing up in rural America, surviving childhood abuse, and being wrongfully convicted of murder are tepid and restrained due to the use of cliches and expected dramatic beats. The film’s plot is bloated, creating a superficial feeling to major revelations and is forced to rush the falling action. The films’ pacing drags until the end, where the creators are compelled to speed by the twist in the conclusion, leaving the viewer feeling loaded with plot but unsatisfied with the final culmination. The film has a notion of social concern with a Southern Gothic hint yet is overall surprisingly mild in tone for a story about sex, murder, family secrets, social class, and power. However, the cinematography is strong with scenes depicting picturesque shots of Louisiana marsh and swampland. The strong sense of environment in the film creates a refreshing tactile element not seen in other recent films.

Review 4: Auteur

Nope is Jordan Peele’s third film, starring Daniel Kaluuya, Keke Palmer, and Steven Yeun was released on July 22nd, 2022. The film centers around sibling ranch owners who took over their deceased father’s ranch and their attempt to understand an unidentified flying object in the sky. Stylistically, the film feels in line with Peele’s other films, knowing exactly where to place the camera to emphasize the deep feeling of uneasiness. The intricacies of this tale are kept under wraps by the director, who unveils details slowly. This is common in Peele’s movies, as the viewer is forced to unwrap the story and understand it as the characters on screen are. While Peele’s other films may have been more overt in the way they portrayed their messages, Peele examines sensitive themes in Nope such as trauma, the beauty of practical effects, and how Hollywood can easily dispose of talent. However, Peele executes this with subtlety that is uncommon compared to his previous films. This makes the themes crucial to the plot without being overt in attempting to make a strong statement. Although this film may be Peele’s most theatrical of the three, its message may also be his most modestly delivered.

Review 5: Feminist/Psychoanalytic and Humanist Review

Don’t Worry Darling was released on September 23rd, 2022 and was directed by Olivia Wilde. The film stars Harry Styles, Florence Pugh, and Olivia Wilde. Through the lens of Pugh’s character, the relish of suburban bliss in an idyllic community soon turns into challenging the rigidity and isolation of the town that is designed to confine women to a system that strips them of their own personhood. The critique is focused on how the misogynistic, monogamous and mainly Caucasian society is viewed as idyllic. Women are pulled in two ways, and they must choose to stay in immobility and defeat, or accept the anger and fight. Alice was stripped of her autonomy and forced into the life of a suburban housewife without her consent and knowledge. The film portrays a vision of femininity that is predicated on preconceived notions of what is is to be a woman; it also emphasizes the dangers that await those who don’t exactly fit this image. While the film makes an effort to explore how patriarchal power can harm women, it neglects to acknowledge how structural inequality varies. Wilde takes on the POV of the oppressor for most of the film which makes the viewer feel comfortable in the world of the oppressor. When the viewer is taken out of that world, it creates feelings of betrayal and conceit as we were put in that position without our knowledge. This is to mirror the emotions that many women feel when being pushed into a life that perhaps they never felt truly comfortable with. Pugh eventually escapes, but there is no absolution. If Wilde is claiming that the film is a celebration of female pleasure, it certainly fails on that point, as all the pleasure the viewers witness is inside the framework of the male-structured society.

Food For Thought: The High Cost of Convenience in our Food System

I.         Introduction

In a nation such as the United States, consumers are flooded with an assortment of industrialized food products made in abundance for low cost each time they step into a grocery store. For typical consumers, questions or concerns about the origins of their food are on the periphery- and infrequently front and center when the media chooses to draw attention to them. The food system’s reliance on industrial-scale agriculture has become one of the most significant problems facing our contemporary food system. In some ways, the industrial food system has served its intended purpose, where virtually an entire nation feeds itself through the current food system (grocery stores, restaurants, etc.). However, while it has made it possible to produce large quantities of food at a low cost, it has also led to a host of negative environmental, health, and social consequences. This reliance on monoculture farming practices, heavy use of chemicals, and excessive water usage have degraded the soil, caused biodiversity loss, and polluted waterways. The prevalence of highly processed foods and added sugars in our diets has also contributed to the rise of chronic diseases. Additionally, the impact of industrial agriculture falls disproportionately on marginalized communities, low-income populations, and developing countries. In this essay, we will explore how the most significant problem associated with our contemporary food system is its reliance on industrial-scale agriculture and food production, which can lead to negative consequences for the environment, public health, and social justice.

 II. The Industrial Agrifood System and the Environment

Through large-scale monoculture farming practices, heavy use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and excessive water usage can lead to soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and pollution of waterways. These environmental problems can have far-reaching consequences on ecosystems, including declines in wildlife populations, loss of fertile land, and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. The environmental problems created by the industrialization of the agrifood system have been largely addressed with industrial solutions that come with their own set of new, possibly larger-scale risks. Guptill summarizes, “the industrialization of the agrifood system in terms of three “technological revolutions”: the mechanical revolution, beginning about 1900, the chemical revolution, beginning at the end of World War II in 1945, and the biotechnology revolution, beginning in the 1980’s” (Guptill et al. 2016). Each of these revolutions consequently creates what is known as a treadmill pattern, where each new technology brings new problems, thus creating a need for more technologies as the cycle continues. During the chemical revolution, the use of chemicals in pesticides, insecticides and herbicides indisputably boosted agricultural production. However, this revolution came with risks. Guptill describes during the 1950/60s how “persistent pesticides like DDT were building up in animal tissues throughout the food chain. For example, insects covered in DDT were consumed by other insects, which were then eaten by frogs hunted by birds and other predators. DDT accumulated in the tissues of these longer-living predators…DDT was banned in 1972…but environmentalists and consumers are still concerned about the [pesticides] that remain” (Guptill et al. 2016). Chemical fertilizers have also created a problem called nutrient pollution, where industrial farming areas’ runoff carries excessive nitrogen and phosphorous to bodies of water, causing algae and other aquatic plants to grow too aggressively. When these plants die, the amount of dissolved oxygen is reduced, causing eutrophication, and consequently creating a dead zone where other aquatic life cannot survive. After this period, the biotechnology revolution was formed to address the problems of the agricultural chemicals used years before. During this time, the genetic engineering of crops was introduced. Because of this, genetic crop engineering technologies have had a huge impact on the two most important agricultural products in the US: corn and soy. Potential adverse effects of genetically engineered organisms affecting humans may include new allergens, antibiotic resistance, production of new toxins and concentration of toxic metals. Guptill also mentions, “environmental groups concerned about genetic engineering are also raising the alarm about genetic pollution, especially in relation to “pharming”, which uses genetically modified crops to produce medicines… the costs to address pollution, pesticide and herbicide resistance, and corporate control of agricultural genetics comprise the third time we pay, individually and collectively, for industrial food” (Guptill et al. 2016). Finally, the Factory Farming Awareness Coalition states that, “industrial animal agriculture is one of the leading contributors to climate change, responsible for about 15.4% of global greenhouse gas emissions” (Dalzell, 2021). This means that the meat and dairy industry has become so industrialized that it emits almost as much heat-trapping gas as all planes, trains, and cars in the entire world. Factory farming also exacerbates deforestation and water scarcity, not to mention the tons of crops, food, and antibiotics that are required to keep these animals alive in heinous conditions. Dalzell states that US factory meat and dairy farms are, “responsible for 55% of water consumption, whereas domestic water use makes up only 5%” (Dalzell, 2021). Overall, the environmental consequences of industrial agriculture are significant, and urgent action is needed to address them. By transitioning to sustainable agriculture practices that prioritize soil health, biodiversity conservation, reduced factory farming and reduced chemical inputs, we can mitigate the environmental damage caused by industrial agriculture and create a more sustainable food system for future generations.

III. The Industrial Agrifood System and Public Health

The second issue with industrial food production is the impact on public health. In addition to food contamination due to pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the prevalence of highly processed foods and added sugars in our diets can contribute to the rise of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. The book, “Weighing In” describes how, “since the mid-1970s, farm productivity in the United States has grown tremendously. Corn and soy, major inputs to food processing, have seen especially dramatic increases in yields per acre…the commodity subsidy system that provides price supports to corn and soy has been the most specific target” in regards to increased obesity levels (Guthman, 2011, p.116). Corn, specifically, is omnipresent in processed food and fast food meals through high fructose corn syrup, oil, and more. Guthman states that some scholars have argued that, “commodity subsidies make these ingredients artificially cheap, especially in comparison to fresh foods… food is so cheap that [Americans] eat more of the high-calorie cheap stuff and less of the lower-calorie and more expensive good stuff” (Guthman, 2011, p.117). Practices in industrial farm policy such as subsidies and industrial dynamics make food cheap and consequently lead to obesity. In the interest of productivity, the food and farm industry, “encourage the use of obseogenic inputs and processing aids. Thus, what may be making us fat is what has been allowed in the production of food rather than how much we eat” (Guthman, 2011, p.117). The prevalence of these highly processed, inexpensive, low-nutrient foods has increased significantly in our contemporary food system. High in calories, sugar, and unhealthy fats and lacking essential nutrients, these processed foods often lead to overconsumption and an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease and other health problems. The industrial agrifood system’s reliance on monoculture farming practices and heavy use of pesticides and fertilizers has led to a decrease in the nutritional quality of many crops, prioritizing quantity instead. This further contributes to public health issues due to a lack of nutritional diversity in the American diet. The conditions of factory farms are especially threatening to public health. FoodPrint states that, “in 2012, livestock and poultry on the largest factory farms produced 369 million tons of animal waste, almost 13 times more waste than that of the 312 million people in the US… the [animal waste] mixture stored in lagoons consists not only of animals excrement but also pathogens such as E. Coli, residues of antibiotics, animal blood, bedding waste, cleaning solutions and other chemicals” (FoodPrint, 2018). Additionally, the gases from manure pits such as, “hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and methane fill the air, along with dust and irritants” (FoodPrint 2018). Communities near factory farms are ultimately deeply negatively affected in regards to their health, air and water quality. The industrialized meat and dairy industry have led to lower nutrient levels in the products as well. With the switch from feeding livestock grass to corn and other byproducts due to overproduction, the levels of omega-3 fatty acids, high-quality fats and other vitamins and minerals typically found in meat have been dramatically reduced. This leads to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity. Likewise, the same pattern has been seen in eggs from pastured hens and dairy cows. In conclusion, the industrial food system has had significant impacts on public health, contributing to the rise of obesity and related chronic diseases in the United States. Highly processed foods, low-nutrient crops, and the concentration of power in the hands of large agribusiness corporations have created a food system that prioritizes profits over public health and nutrition. This leads to a proliferation of unhealthy foods and a lack of access to healthy, affordable options for many communities. To address these issues, we need to transition to more sustainable and equitable food systems that prioritize the production and consumption of healthy, whole foods, reduce the prevalence of highly processed foods, and promote equitable access to healthy food options for all communities. By prioritizing public health and nutrition in our food system policies and practices, we can create a healthier and more sustainable future for ourselves and future generations.

IV. The Industrial Agrifood System and Social Justice

The third issue with industrial food production is the social justice implications. Low-income communities and marginalized populations are more likely to live in food deserts where access to healthy, fresh food is limited and highly processed and unhealthy food options are abundant. These communities are also more likely to experience the negative environmental consequences of industrial agriculture, such as air and water pollution. Food deserts contribute to social injustice in the contemporary food system because they disproportionately affect low-income communities, which are often made up of people of color. These communities may have limited resources and face systemic barriers to accessing healthy food options, which contributes to health problems and therefore perpetuates the cycle of poverty. In addition, food deserts can perpetuate the dominance of large agribusiness corporations and highly processed food manufacturers in the food system, who prioritize profits over public health and nutrition.  Guptill states, “The scarcity of food as a consequence of poverty is a much more complicated problem than it seems on the surface, especially when examined through an agrifood system lens” (Guptill, 2016). Both the surplus and scarcity of food in America are inherently human creations and, as such, require political rather than technical solutions. But the question persists: how is there food scarcity and inequality in a nation that is overproducing crops at an alarming rate? Food sovereignty activists call this notion the scarcity fallacy. Guptill continues, “Even though farmers are less than 2% of the US population, they produce enough to provide every person in the US with 3,800 calories per day of food energy, which is more than one and a half times what an average person needs” (Guptill, 2016). Although there are enough food calories currently produced to feed the world, the industrial agrifood industry persists in presenting the problem of hunger and food scarcity as an issue of underproduction. On a global level, hunger sometimes persists because poorer people must purchase food and do not have the money to do it. However, the chronic problems of food insecurity in the US have deeper roots in line with systemically created food deserts and the ever-present cycle of poverty that keeps people of color stuck in insecurity regarding food, housing, safety, and money. Another level of social injustice within the industrial agrifood system regards the workers within the system that are responsible for the production of our crops in America. Barry Estabrook, the author of “Tomatoland”, shines a light on the cruel treatment and lack of policies that protect the workers in the tomato fields in Florida, who are mainly immigrants and are ultimately exploited for their work. This pattern is seen in many other crop industries in America, such as wine grapes in the valleys of California. Estabrook states that “any American who has eaten a winter tomato, either purchased at a supermarket or on top of a fast food salad, has eaten a fruit picked by the hand of a slave” (Estabrook, 2011, p. 73). Through relaxed Florida government regulations on labor, health, environmental codes and oversights, the Florida tomato industry has essentially gotten away with years of exploitation and torture of farm workers. Many immigrants, occasionally illegal, make up the majority of the population of farm workers. Because of their status, they lack the ability to unionize and lack safety and protection in their line of work. With a higher concentration of industrial farms, farmers must sell their products cheaper while also taking a percentage of the worker’s earnings. This makes for very cheap labor that is met with little to no pushback, as the immigrant workers lack any power to fight against these farmers. The consequences of this system are extreme exploitation and extreme marginalization, deeming these workers invisible in the eyes of consumers and society. Estabrook continues, “Federal labor laws helped create and continue to support this abusive economy by specifically denying farmhands rights that virtually all other American workers take for granted” (Estabrook, 2011, p.96). Farm workers were denied the right to unionize and engage in collective bargaining without the fear of being fired. “In the wording of the bill, the definition of “employee” did not include “any individual employed as an agricultural laborer” (Estabrook, 2011, p.96).  Overall, the industrial food system has significant impacts on social justice, perpetuating systems of inequality and marginalization. Addressing the root causes of these problems, including promoting sustainable and equitable food systems, supporting small farmers, and increasing access to healthy food options in low-income areas, is essential to advancing social justice in the contemporary food system. By working towards a more just food system, we can promote health, well-being, and human rights for all communities and build a more sustainable future.

V. Counter Argument and Final Words

The industrial agrifood system has made undoubtedly made food more affordable and accessible for consumers. The industrial food system has enabled the production of large quantities of food at lower costs, which has helped to feed a growing global population. Additionally, advancements in food processing and preservation technologies have led to a wider variety of food products being available year-round, regardless of season. This has ultimately improved the convenience and accessibility of a variety of food for consumers, particularly those with limited time and resources.

However, the counterargument fails to acknowledge the ever-present negative impacts of the industrial food system, including the destruction of the environment due to industrial farming practices, reliance on fossil fuels for transportation, and the concentration of power in the hands of large agribusiness corporations. Not to mention the public health disparities related to industrial agriculture such as the lack of nutrition and the addition of sugars and chemicals in processed foods as well as the social injustices that many marginalized communities face such as low-income families and agricultural workers. These negative impacts have contributed to environmental degradation, climate change, extreme health issues, human rights violations and many more factors prevalent in America. While the industrial food system has made food more affordable and accessible, we must also consider the long-term costs and consequences of its practices and work towards creating a more sustainable and equitable food system for all.

Historical Innovation: Invasion of the Body Snatchers

During the 1950s in America, Hollywood was producing films that were generated by a type of postwar disenchantment. Shaped by the aftermath of World War II, distrust of communist intentions made its way into American filmmaking as metaphors in horror and sci-fi films. By creating metaphors for the social anxieties that surrounded the US at this time, filmmakers were able to add underlying tones of current political agendas into Hollywood blockbusters. The film I chose, ‘Invasion of the Body Snatchers’ was released in 1956, directed by Don Siegel, and stars Kevin McCarthy and Dana Winters. The black-and-white film is set in the fictional town of Santa Mira, California where Dr. Miles Bennell (McCarthy) notices that the people in his town are worried that their loved ones have been replaced by imposters. These imposters, although look completely identical to their original, have seemed to have been replaced by emotionless imposters. After many doubts from not just his own logical and medical ideology but from others in the town as well, his suspicions turn out to be true. This quaint, Californian town has been taken over by alien life forms that morph into their human twins in plant-like pods, and have an unstoppable mission to turn the entire town, and the rest of the world, into these alien creatures. This film represents 1950’s cinema because it presents a narrative of anxieties around communism, the fear of the “unknown” especially in technology and space, and the panic around nuclear radiation and nuclear materials being used in the war. Through the use of science fiction effects and a mysterious and unseen monster or antagonist, the film can create a tone of pure paranoia and distrust with the characters and the events in the film.

The ideals of McCarthyism are strong in this film, as Dr. Bennell becomes more and more paranoid in trying to distinguish who has/has not been changed. He must make assumptions about the people around him to attempt to know whom he can trust. During this time, America was paranoid about communism seeping into their politics and films and the McCarthyism practice of public accusations against people related to communism and socialism was common. The stereotype around communism at this time was cold, emotionless people set to turn everyone towards their beliefs. In the film, people were turned into emotionless robots set to make everyone like them. Bennell states in the film, “in my practice, I’ve seen how people have allowed their humanity to drain away. Only it happened slowly instead of all at once. They don’t seem to mind… All of us- a little bit- we harden our hearts, grow callous. Only when we have to fight to stay human do we realize how precious it is to us, how dear.” (Invasion of the Body Snatchers). This could be related to the fight against communism and the fight to protect American ideals and the American way of life. An even more specific moment in the film occurs in the final scene when Bennell is escaping Santa Mira. He is running through the highway trying desperately to get a car to stop and listen to his warnings. Everyone is dismissing him, so he turns directly to the camera in an extreme close-up shot and speaks to the audience in an obvious call to action, “Look, you fools, you’re in danger! Can’t you see?! They’re after you! They’re after all of us! Our wives, our children, everyone! They’re here, already! You’re next!” (Invasion of the Body Snatchers). This is arguably the strongest line in the film, as Bennell is speaking directly to the audience and warning them that these unknown and mysterious creatures are not just taking over their beloved small American towns, but that they already have. This could be seen as an allusion to the deep-rooted American fear of communist ideals taking over US politics, and the choice to speak directly to the audience makes this an even stronger message, telling the viewers that they too should be afraid of the unknown rather than just the characters in the film. By using science fiction conventions as metaphors for real-world war, politics, and corruption, the film can successfully create a fictional world of horror and otherworldly experiences and relate it to the state of America during the 1950s.

The fear of new technology and space during the 1950s was strong. During this time, dramatic improvements in a variety of technology altered American culture and the way that Americans viewed civilization. As more families owned televisions, they came to rely on them more and more for news and entertainment. Furthermore, the Cold War was a competition between the Soviets and the United States in every sense. Although the Space Race did not start until after this movie was released, the tensions between the two countries were high and both were working towards exploring space. The seed pods were considered an extraterrestrial invasion, where these alien plant spores that fell from space root themselves into the ground and grow into identical copies of the town’s citizens. The idea of an extraterrestrial invasion could be a metaphor for both an invasion of communism and the Soviet Union as well as an invasion of otherworldly aliens from space. Both ideas create a fear of the unknown and the fear of a powerful entity taking over the quiet and conservative American way of life. Dr. Kauffman (already changed into his alien form) observes this idea in the film when he says, “now just think, less than a month ago, Santa Mira was like any other town. People with nothing but problems. Then, out of the sky came a solution. Seeds drifting through space for years took root in a farmer’s field. From the seeds came pods which had the power to reproduce themselves in the exact likeness of any form of life” (Invasion of the Body Snatchers). The un-human desire for a world with no emotions is very alien and could be a subtle allusion to the postwar disenchantment with US life that followed WWII. The post-war American pessimism that occurred during the 1950s created pessimism to the point of nihilism. During the film, Dr. Bennell argues with Dr. Kauffman about the need for emotions in life, when Kauffman replies, “You say it as if it were terrible. Believe me, it isn’t. You’ve been in love before. It didn’t last. It never does. Love. Desire. Ambition. Faith. Without them, life is so simple, believe me (Invasion of the Body Snatchers). The film leaves the interpretation of what these body snatchers exactly are up to the viewer when Bennell states during a narration, “Maybe they’re the result of atomic radiation on plant life or animal life. Some weird alien organism – a motion of some kind…whatever it is, whatever intelligence or instinct it is that govern the forming of human flesh and blood out of thin air, is fantastically powerful… all that body in (Becky aka Dana Winters) cellar needed was a mind” (Invasion of the Body Snatchers).

The film overall is highly assuming and never gives the audience a straightforward answer to the question, what do these pods represent? Since the most obvious fear in 1950s America is communism, many comparisons can be made between the fear of communism and the fear of body snatching seed pods. The anxiety of ordinary Americans being communist spies is reflected during the beginning of the film when characters claimed that their friends and family members were missing something inside themselves that made them appear as cold, emotionless replicas of their once human selves. During the scene where Dr. Bennell and Becky hide in his office after being chased by the new townspeople, the director uses high-angle long shots from the office looking down on the center of the town. Although it appears that these people are going about their normal Saturday activities, the town is filled with replicas who are mindlessly moving about before they can complete their mission of picking up pods to replace the humans in their neighboring towns. The sensation that this transition is something that feels familiar yet so foreign. Miles (Dr. Bennell)’s office is cluttered and claustrophobic, showing how trapped the two characters are in the town. The constant disbelief in the film towards any characters that question this transition creates a subtle nod to the idea of “The Red Scare”. Dr. Kauffman initially refers to these worries from the townspeople before they are changed as an “epidemic of mass hysteria”. At this time in America, the House Committee on Un-American Activities was formed to lead witch hunts against people in all areas of America that were suspected of having communist or leftist ideals. Blacklists were created and people that were considered a threat to the American way of life were jailed. This creates a possible second narrative, one that is questioning the social conformity and single-minded ideas that were promoted and encouraged during this time. These ideas show up in the film as a possible critique of the anti-communist frenzy that occurred during the 1950s, and a satirical approach to the Red Scare and McCarthyism. Both criticisms are apparent in the film, giving criticism and comment on both the external threat of foreign invasion and the internal threat of conformity and absolutism.

Invasion of the Body Snatchers exudes a cultural sentiment of the American 1950s through the critique of communism, post-war anxieties, political corruption, and social disenchantment. Although Siegel denied viewers’ speculations about the film and claimed that there were no political intentions in his film, the open-ended themes and fact that the mysterious antagonistic power was never shown on camera leave the answer up to the mind of the viewer. The scariest part of the film was that this enemy was never given a form, rather it stays in the mind as an idea, enhancing strong paranoia and anxiety in the hearts of the film characters and viewers alike.